NOAH'S FLOOD: LIFE IN THE ARK

                                                                                                                                            - NIBIN PINTO

Ever since his creation, man exercised the authority over every living being and to even decide the fate of our planet earth. But he was helpless before that invisible virus which threatened his life and forced him to stay in. The sudden arrival of COVID-19 pressed the feverish world to socially distance and the people to remain indoors as no one was allowed in the streets. This situation resembles the flood narrated in the book of Genesis from the Holy Bible which forced Noah and his family to stay in the ark for survival. So, meditating on that event may help us to ease out our tensions and hope for a better tomorrow.

    Noah’s Flood was a mystery play in the Chester Mystery Cycle which was adapted from the Holy Bible and performed for the audience to easily contemplate the gravity of that event since printing and reading was not so common. The God commanded Noah to build an ark to sustain his family from the deluge with which he plans to destroy the unruly mortals. All his family, which consisted of his wife, three sons – Shem, Ham and Japhet along with their wives gave a hand in building the ark. The God then instructs Noah to take with him all living creatures in pairs to preserve his creation. After 150 days of fear and desperation, they came out of the ark and life went back to normal. This event can be viewed as the first catastrophe faced by human kind. 

    While turning the pages of history we find many. It is said that in a century an epidemic, a deluge and a drought come to pass. And now we are witnessing an epidemic which transformed into a pandemic, thanks to globalization for updating the world into a global village. A point in which all our technological advancements stood in vain and many our brethren departed with no proper goodbye, we were imposed by lockdown to stay in our modern ark – Home, counting our breath. The traumatic and lonely experience of living within the four walls made us to lead a mode of virtual life. Many workers lost their jobs and economic sector fall apart. Everyone went online into the world of abundant possibilities with knowledge spread around the world. But appearances proved to be deceptive and many were trapped inside the dark holes while trying to find a relation to make them alive. Cybercrimes shot up with money and privacy going away with the hackers.

    Noah and his family are a role model for us to face our hardships by standing tall. Thousands of years ago, life was only in that ark which now stands as a metaphor for our predicament. Quarantine and Isolation inflicted on made us desperate like the Noah’s wife who gave a blow to him for forcing her to leave the land. We are, however, blessed with electric gadgets and medical apparatus to support our life. Also we must see the silver lining of this post-pandemic world that enabled us to be more careful with our health and lifestyle, to stay fit and enjoy homely meals with our family. We also understood the value of society, pleasure of company and positivity of nature. But as we are thrown out of our daily routine, a normal return is not possible soon. Noah inspires us here by abiding to the will of God wholeheartedly with no contempt. Although we are unable to reveal the hidden beauty behind our masks and to chill outdoor with our pals, let us be brave and recite in our mind:

                                                               “THIS TOO SHALL PASS….”   

The Wife's Lament: A Song on Unreturned Love and Loss

 The Wife’s Lament 

-Joel Jacob Eldho

This Old English poem is believed to be written around 10th century AD. As the title suggests, it is about a wife expressing her sorrow and unhappiness. This piece of poetry falls under the category of wisdom poetry that imparts information regarding the condition of humans and the world. The Wife’s Lament is found in the Exeter book, one of the four Old English manuscripts. This could also be considered as an elegy since it has the elements like exile, longing, separation, passage of time etc. The author of the poem is unknown. However, there exists a debate on whether it was authored by a man or woman. If it were written by a woman, this could be seen as one of the first female authored poems. However, this could have been written by a male author who incorporated a female perspective in it. Anyways, the poem offers a psychological exploration. 

The Wife’s Lament consists of 53 lines. It could be divided into five parts for better understanding. Line 1-5 is a formal introduction to the poem. The narrator (wife) says that she wrote the poem/song about herself. The introductory stanza talks about the sufferings she has been through. The last line of the first stanza (“I suffer the torment of my exile”) talks about her exile which will be discussed in the later parts of the poems. So, the first stanza opens with a melancholic tone that further intensifies. 

 In the second stanza (6-14) she explains the reason for her sorrow. She introduces a new male character and addresses him as ‘lord’. This is actually her husband and the leader of a group of people. She says that the lord left her and his people for good and she feels betrayed. The reason for the lord leaving is not specified in the poem which makes it ambiguous. She is worried about the forthcoming consequences on the people and her. So, in order to solve this misery, she sets out on a journey alone to find the lord. This could be seen as a self-inflicted exile (“a friendless exile”). Unfortunately for her, the lord’s kinsmen (relatives) are trying to separate the wife and husband. They are trying to keep them apart. But the reason for this is also unknown. The narrator doesn’t specify this. She is impatient to meet her husband. She says, “longing seized me.”

 In the next stanza (15-26), the degree of pain increases. In the beginning of the stanza, out of nowhere, the lord invites her to live with him in an unknown place where she no friends or family. She is stressed over this but is happy to see the lord. However, as the stanza progresses a massive tragedy unfolds. She realises the deceptive nature of her husband. She finds that under the masquerade of a smiling face, her husband has been plotting murders. She also realises that he is in grief and is unfortunate. However, just like the previous stanzas, the reason for this is not specified. Earlier they thought that only death could separate them from the marriage but now everything has fallen apart. This signifies the transience of life. She now has to suffer from the hatred of the one she used to love. (“All that is changed now; it is now as if it had never been”.) 

The fourth stanza (27-41) gets darker and confusing than the previous. She is now captured by the husband’s kinsmen and held a prisoner. She is forced to live in a “forest grove, under an oak tree in an earthen cave.” The reason for this is also unknown. She is now in an extreme state of grief and says, “I ache with longing.” She compares them to lovers lying in a bed. The lovers have something that she longs for. She is jealous for the intimacy between the lovers. The lord’s betrayal has forced her to lead a new life that she never wished for. She is not going to escape the longings that have seized her life. All she can do is weep in the cave over her exile. 

 In the fifth and final stanza (42-53), the wife expresses a mixed feeling for her husband. She kind of curses the husband. She says, “May the young man be sad-minded with hard heart-thoughts, yet let him have a smiling face along with his heartache, a crowd of constant sorrows.” She actually doesn’t want him to suffer, she wants him to go through the pain that she went through. She wants him to understand that life has not been easy for her. He must look back and realise what he has lost. She ends the poem by saying, “My beloved will suffer the cares of a sorrowful mind; he will remember too often a happier home. Woe to the one who must suffer longing for a loved one.”

 Analysis 

The poem is an ambiguous roller-coaster of emotions. It goes from love to exile to deceit to suffering to hatred/cursing. It is also possible that the husband and wife still love each other, but the circumstances don’t allow it. The lord may have imprisoned her due to the pressure from his kinsmen and not due to hatred. There is also another interpretation that the lord himself sent his wife away to protect her from the malicious acts of his kinsmen. 

Some critics argue that the wife may be referring to different husbands in different stanzas because she addresses them differently like ‘lord’, ‘young man’ etc. However, the possibility of this interpretation is not very valid. 

This could also be analysed as a Christian poetry. The wife could be seen as the church (the bride of Christ) lamenting her exile from Jesus. Her sufferings could be viewed as a man’s hardship in his daily life and the eventual salvation. 

Another interpretation is that she could actually be dead and could be talking from her grave. The cave/earth hall in which she is imprisoned is similar to a grave. So, it may be a dead woman’s lament.

 Themes 

The Wife’s Lament has numerous Anglo-Saxon elements like exile, longing for love, suffering, isolation, loneliness, solitude, quest for belongingness etc. It is similar to other Old English poetries like The Seafarer and The Wanderer which also includes the elements of sea, exile, journey etc. The poem goes deep into the psyche of the wife and explores it. It could also be seen as an existential and psychological poem.

 Form and Literary Devices 

The poem consists of 53 lines and is written in alliterative meter which focuses on alliteration as a metrical structure. It also has numerous trochees (a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable). The poem is also rich in imagery. It is allegorical in nature. The affinity towards nature and the employment of nature filled imageries is yet another factor. And since it is written in alliterative meter, alliterations are also rich in number.

King Alfred's Pastoral Care and the History Behind It

By Alex Thomas John

The enemy forces have started to conquer and take over many of the neighboring kingdoms. Everywhere they conquered, the enemies destroyed the native culture of the land and tried to spread and expand their own ideology. The enemies are getting closer and closer. Meanwhile, the people of your kingdom doesn’t seem to be interested in learning. They hardly know anything about their own religion, culture and language. Most of them don’t even know how to read their own native language. If you don’t act soon, the culture of your kingdom and the legacy of your ancestors will be lost forever in the hands of your enemies. This was the problem that King Alfred had to face in the late 8^th century.

The Vikings had proven their strength, and had started to conquer one European kingdom after the other, and causing harm to the kingdoms and their culture. It was during this time that King Alfred, the king off Wessex, noticed that the people in his kingdom were not interested in learning. They did not know about the texts of their own religion, since most of the religious texts were in Latin language, and only the learned scholars knew Latin, while most of the ordinary people in the kingdom were not even able to read and understand their native tongue, English. Seeing this pitiful state of interest in learning among his subjects, King Alfred decided that he had to do something to change this. He invited scholars from all around Europe to his kingdom, and asked for their help to translate some of the works from other languages, that are “most necessary for men to understand,” into English. He learned Latin himself and began translating books into English in 887. He urged the young and free men of his kingdom to learn English and to read the books which would be translated to English.

King Alfred had four older brothers, and hence didn’t have much probability too become king, as the eldest heir would ascend the throne. It is perhaps because of this that he decided to life the life of a scholar. His interest towards learning was also influenced by his mother, who encouraged it. But, King Alfred was not able to acquire the knowledge he sought until much later in life.

King Alfred begins his Preface to Pastoral Care by greeting Bishop Waelferth. Bishop Waelferth was the English Bishop of Worcester and was also a contemporary and friend of King Alfred. He was one of the significant translators from Latin to Old English. Then, in the preface, King Alfred recollects how clergy used to be in the past, talks about how there were successful leaders in the past, how people were happy under the rule of such kings, and how the king and his subjects obeyed God and his messengers. The leaders expanded their territory to foreign lands. They were aware of their duties to God, and knew how to fulfil them. People from different parts of the world used to come to their land, seeking wisdom. But now, the art of learning has fallen off in the English society. People are not even able to understand their services in English, or translate even an epistle from Latin to English. King Alfred therefore pleads with the clergy to put into practice the wisdom they have been given by God. King Alfred says that the people of his kingdom including himself are only Christians by name, and have hardly any virtues. But this shouldn’t be so, and it is their responsibility to be exemplars of Christianity. King Alfred says that English churches are willed with treasures and books, but people are not able to make proper use of them because they don’t understand the language. He then remembers the old scholars of his country, and wonders why none of them took the initiative to translate the major Latin works into English. He assumes that this might be because they wouldn’t have expected their future generation to show such less interest in the field of learning, and would have expected the future generation to learn Latin and other foreign languages so that they may gain more wisdom. King Alfred points out how the Bible was originally written in Hebrew language, and was later translated into different languages, including Latin. Many other Christian countries have even translated the Bible into their own native languages.

King Alfred puts forward the idea that they should too translate some books that are “most necessary for men to understand” into English. He encourages young, free men on his kingdom to be committed to learning how to read English writing. Noticing how the interest to learn Latin has died in English Men, King Alfred says that he has decided to translate Latin Pastoralis, also known as Pastoral Care, into the English language. Pastoral Care was a book written by Pope Gregory I, and was to guide the bishops and pastors on how to handle and do their duties in the church. He then announces that he will send a copy of the translated manuscript to every bishop in his kingdom, and that the reading is essential to his bishops, as well as others to come. The text is ordered to be kept in the church for future use.

This is how King Alfred as a king who gave much importance to education and learning, revived the interest in learning, and also blessed the domain of English literature with his translations of some of the most major works of literature from other foreign languages.

The Robin Hood play: “Robyn Hod and the Shryff off Notyngham”

 

The Robin Hood play: “Robyn Hod and the Shryff off Notyngham”

Isabelle Marianne

Robin Hood is one of the most well-known and widely loved and read stories of all time and this popular legend of the outlaw can be traced back to England. What started as a popular folklore has now widely spread across the globe and become a much loved hero and his name has come to represent any “outlaw” of a do-gooder who seeks justice for the poor and oppressed.

            So, what is the origin of this legend who looted the rich and helped the poor? And what do we know of it? The earliest mention of Robin Hood can be traced back to William Langland’s Piers Plowman and later on it can be spotted various other sources like Friar Daw’s Reply, Dives and Pauper and even the famous Lollard tracts from the latter half of the 15^th century. Out of these, Dives and Pauper, a 15^th century religious commentary, probably exposes the popularity of Robin Hood as it complains how people are more willing to listen to tales of Robin Hood than to attend Mass. In regard to verse narratives, there are as many as thirty-nine ballads attributed to Robin Hood, many of which are compiled by the American folklorist in his anthology, “The English and Scottish Ballads” which is more popularly known as the “Child Ballads”. Of these thirty-nine ballads, only twelve are dated with certainty are believed to be written before the 17^th century. The earlier narrative ballads belonging to the latter part of the 15^th century and the first half of the 16^th century are also important as they provide major information on the legend. Those narrative ballads mention the outlaw’s anticlerical attitude which contrasts with his devotion to Virgin Mary, his special regard for women and children, how he favoured the lower/poorer sections of the society, portrays the Sheriff as one of his major enemies and most importantly mentions some of the members of Hood’s band of Merry Men: Will Scarlet, Little John and Much the Miller’s son. The 16th century ballad, “A Gest of Robyn Hode” is one of the earliest texts of verse on Robin Hood.

            Coming to the dramatic pieces on Robin Hood, there are three fragmentary plays on Robin Hood, of which only one is dated with certainty and it is an incomplete, anonymous work- a fragment of 21 lines: “Robyn Hod and the Shryff off Notyngham”. The studies on this fragment are done in comparison with other parallel sources and much of the information is often disputed, with opinions changing according to the scholar. This manuscript dates back to 1475 and this was determined as a fact as it was written on a paper which recorded the financial receipts for the year 1475-76.

            The manuscript is unclear about stage directions and the speakers, the scenes change abruptly and therefore, the interpretation is quite complex. However, there is one popular identification which matches the fragment with the “Robin Hood and the Guy of Gisborne” story. The manuscript holds much importance as it reveals two important characters related to the legend- Maid Marian and Friar Tuck/ “ffere Tuke”. There is some contemplation that this is probably a part of a play performed in the household of Sir Paston and hence, can be linked to the famous Paston letters. Currently, the manuscript is kept at the library in Trinity College, Cambridge.

            Regarding the plot-oriented details of the manuscript, the fragment begins with an agreement between the sheriff and a knight with the latter agreeing to capture Robin Hood in return of “gold and fee”. The knight competes with Robin Hood in various sports, including archery and it ends with the knight being defeated and he is later beheaded by Robin Hood after fighting him. There is a sudden scene change and we find two men who discuss about Robin Hood and set out to kill the Sheriff. Again, the scene changes and the audience are presented with Friar Tuck who is shown to be shooting with a bow (and the same two men are keenly watching him). Critics consider the anonymous two men to be Will Scathelock and Little John and these two along with Friar Tuck are forced to yield by the Sheriff (under the threat of being hanged) and consequently taken away wherein the fragment ends.

            The manuscript remains relevant to this for the study of Robin Hood and keeping the legend alive. The most notable aspect is its violent portrayal of Robin Hood as opposed to the contemporary equivalent of a kind-hearted, merciful outlaw who engages in warfare but with minimum bloodshed. The legend of Robin Hood and its gradual growth over time has given way to several speculations- a symbol of rebellion, a symbol of hope and protest against the erstwhile feudal society and lastly, for all we know, “Robin Hood” could be an alias for any person who seeks justice. Much of the interpretations are assumed with varied opinions and inferences and there is always something new added to the core elements of the play. In contemporary society, the May Day celebrations (which finds its roots in Tudor times) consider Robin Hood and Maid Marian as the May King and Queen.

            Regardless of scholarly studies and debates, the famous outlaw of Sherwood Forest with his gang of Merry Men who wore Lincoln green and helped the poor remains as a much loved figure who has captured hearts and minds alike. Among children, the tales of the charming, kind-hearted archer arouse much curiosity and excitement while on a larger angle, it is one of England’s finest legendary figures and a treasure belonging to its folklore. And to conclude, it is impossible to deny the value and importance of its early origins- be it ballads, plays or prose pieces- as it all contributes to keeping the beloved English hero’s legacy alive.

References used:

https://robinhoodlegend.com/the-dramatic-fragment/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_Ballads

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Gest_of_Robyn_Hode

https://photos.com/featured/1-robin-hood-legendary-english-folk-hero-print-collector.html